The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited.

READERS' THEATER AND METACOGNITION

USING READERS' THEATER TO DEVELOP METACOGNITION
       Last May, I had the problem all teachers experience, keeping students on task and learning at the same rate they learn throughout the rest of the school year. In my case, it was holding the interest and attention of 33 sixth grade disabled readers who came to an aftershcool remedial reading program twice a week. There were three classes led by three teaching assistants, but the lesson plans and the instruction to the teaching assistants was my responsibility. After a long year of missing intramural sports and club activities, these students had had enough. So when a Drill Team was formed with the intention of marching in the townwide Memorial Day parade, half of my students wanted to join and I was ready to acquiesce. After all, they had been with me all year long, their attention was waning fast, and they would, at least, learn to follow directions and gain precision through Drill Team activities. But, if I let half of them go, what would I do to hold the interest of the other half? That's when I decided to teach Readers' Theater for the final weeks of the program. What happened was better than I expected. The students loved it so much that those who had permission to go to Drill Team decided to stay in reading class and give up Drill Team. They said it was more fun doing Readers' Theater.
       I have always used Readers' Theater to motivate reluctant readers and have presented the idea at conferences. But because it is a strong activity that pulls students in, I expanded the strategy to develop reading, writing, and speaking skills to develop higher order thinking and learning in the form of metacognition.

WHAT IS METACOGNITION?
       Metacognition has been defined as the knowledge and control a person has over one's thinking and learning activities (Baker and Brown, 1984; Brown, Bransford, Ferrara and Campione, 1983; Flavell, 1978; Jacobs and Paris, 1987). It is the ability to think about, monitor and control one's own learning. Studies have shown that using metacognitive strategies, students are able to learn material faster, understand it better, and retain the information longer (Cook and Mayer, 1983; Derry and Murphy, 1986; Levin, 1986; Pressley, et al., 1989). These strategies emphasize the role of the student as an active learner who makes decisions about learning through questioning, self-monitoring, and metacognition (Paris and Winograd, 1990). Moreover, strategy use instruction show the largest gains among students with learning disabilities, making it an attractive feature in today's heterogeneous classroom composed of mainstreamed students of varying abilities and ages (Mastropieri and Bakken, 1990; Palinscar, David, Winn and Stevens, 1991; Pressley and Harris, 1990; Scurggs and Brigham, 1990).
       Both researchers and practitioners have found that good readers generally begin reading strategically and integrate information from contextual and semantic sources during reading. As they become better readers, they appear to sample information from text automatically without having to examine the structure of words. Poor readers, on the other hand, are not efficient in their ability to use words as sources for information. They may rely more heavily on information from contextual sources to gain meaning. They may concentrate on pronouncing the words in the selection at a conscious level. These differences in the reading act appear to be the results of differences in metacognitive knowledge. Poor or inefficient readers, therefore, need to be taught metacognitive skills.
       Metacognition as it relates to reading can be divided into three broad categories: 1. Cognitive Awareness (a person's knowledge about his or her own cognitive resources and an evaluation of the reading task to be accomplished). 2. Cognitive Monitoring (the ability to actively regulate what one knows while reading or after reading). 3. Compensatory Strategies (a person's use of fix-up strategies during the actual reading process, i.e. what to do when comprehension begins to be lost).
       Ironically, although there is an abundance of research in favor of metacognitive strategy instruction, researchers find little or no strategy use occurring in today's classroom (Mayo, 1992). In fact, it seems that although this concept and the research that supports its value has been reported for the last 15 years, teachers have only a vague idea as to what it is. It seems then, that the only way to begin to teach metacognitive strategies is to incorporate them into already existing strategies and activities that students like and that teachers will use in the classroom. Readers' Theater is an ideal candidate for the job.

WHAT IS READERS' THEATER?
       Readers' Theater is defined by McCaslin (1990) as "the total presentation of drama, prose, or poetry by two or more readers (p. 263)." It is the oral interpretation of literature presented by readers who bring forth the full expression of the literature through their oral reading. It requires no costumes, no sets, and no props. The readers don't have to memorize their parts because they read from their scripts. The performance of the script relies mainly on how well the readers read with expression to convey the meaning of the literature upon which the script is based. Voice and the written script are the two most important components of Readers' Theater.
       There are four parts to Readers' Theater:
       Part I. Read a story or piece from literature.
       Part II. Write the script by first making selective and analytical choices in order to transform the story into a script. This is accomplished first, through discussion with the other readers and, second, through following specific guidelines which make the otherwise overwhelming task manageable even for fourth and fifth graders.
       Part III. Formulate, practice, and refine the reading performance of the script.
       Part IV. Perform for an audience, reading aloud from hand-held scripts.
       Readers' Theater originally began with the readers standing at lecterns with minimal gestures. However, over the years it has evolved to include elements of stage theater, such as interaction between players, expanded gestures, and sets and costumes. All of this depends upon the purposes and objectives of the teacher. (Please see the Supplementary Information on Readers' Theater that follows "References").

WHY TEACH READERS' THEATER?
       1. Readers' Theater uses oral reading to enhance comprehension.
       2. Readers' Theater encourages students to read for pleasure.
       3. Readers' Theater helps to develop life time readers.
       4. Readers' Theater enables students to enjoy reading aloud in a non-threatening environment.
       5. Readers' Theater invites students to listen to and to enjoy the written word.
       6. Readers' Theater gives proficient readers and non-proficient readers a chance to work together.
       7. Readers' Theater gives students an opportunity to share their creativity with others.
       8. Readers' Theater exposes children to a wide range of quality literature.
       9. Readers' Theater performances can be used to spotlight literature, student writing, and curriculum content.
       10. Social studies, science, speaking, listening, writing, reading, and thinking can be integrated and enriched through Readers' Theater.
       11. In the process of "re-creating" or interpreting a Readers Theater script, students search for personal meaning in the characters and situation and, then, develop their own interpretations.
       12. At its best, a Readers' Theater script stretches students beyond their own ideas into the ideas and words of others.
       13. The re-reading required to develop a Readers' Theater presentation encourages better retention of key concepts and related vocabulary.
       14. Readers' Theater scripts expose students to quality writing that serves as models for their own writing.
       15. Readers' Theater brings the piece of literature or content material to life and makes it memorable.
       16. Students love the activity, and are willing to persevere through the rigorous reading, writing, and thinking skills that it incorporates.
       * Adapted from Bauer, Presenting Readers' Theater: Plays and Poems to Read, and Busching, "Readers' Theater: An Education for Language and Life."

WAYS TO TEACH METACOGNITION THROUGH READERS' THEATER
       What kinds of metacognitive strategies can we teach through Readers' Theater? The following are some suggested activities which can be implemented at each stage of Readers' Theater.

PHASE ONE: READING THE LITERATURE
       After the students read the piece of literature on their own, ask them to respond to a writing prompt. Then ask them to respond to the same writing prompt again after they have completed the four stages of Readers' Theater. Have them compare two responses using a Venn Diagram (or other compare/contrast graphic organizer) and explain these differences in a discussion with the class. When students have this opportunity, they discover for themselves that when they analyze, write, and perform, they transact with the literature. The literature "comes alive" for them and they respond emotionally to it, not just cerebrally. For many students who do not experience the joy of reading literature, this is truly a unique experience. Furthermore, this helps students to self-evaluate, to reflect on what they originally understood and to see how the quality of their understanding has increased. (Cognitive Awareness).

PHASE TWO: ANALYZING THE LITERATURE AND WRITING THE SCRIPT
       When creating the character web, ask students to revisit the text of the story and find the proof for the character traits that they are suggesting. Also, in writing the script, students must first write out the information to understand the plot, the characters, and the setting. They then must see how these parts create the wholeness in the story and how they are vital in the design and telling of their story. They come to see, in a very concrete way, the value of dialogue and narration in telling the story. They need to make decisions as to what is important for the story to work. This develops their ability to both analyze and discriminate. (Cognitive Monitoring and Compensatory Strategies).

PHASE THREE: REHEARSING THE SCRIPT
       After students write the script and begin to rehearse it, they receive immediate and concrete feedback as to where the problems are and where the story goes smoothly. They do not need an outside expert to point out any of the inconsistencies or lacks in clarity, they can experience it for themselves. They discover what works and what doesn't. What does not work goes back to the drawing board and is re-worked and rewritten. Inconsistencies and ambiguities become obvious when the script is read aloud and acted out by the characters in it. (Cognitive Awareness, Cognitive Monitoring, and Compensatory Strategies).

PHASE FOUR: PERFORMING THE SCRIPT
       Under the guidance and instruction of the teacher, students establish the criteria for evaluating each performance (see response forms in Appendix). Final performance are videotaped so that each performer can receive concrete feedback as to how they did. After watching the videotape, everyone (including the readers) gives each reader feedback regarding what he or she did well and where the focus for improvement should be. Also, each group receives a group performance evaluation. Seeing one's performance on video and receiving evaluations based upon already established criteria provides the ultimate in feedback. This kind of direct, immediate, concrete, and real-life authentic feedback promotes the development of all three aspects of metacognition: Cognitive Awareness, Cognitive Monitoring, and Compensatory Strategies.

CONCLUSIONS
       Students who have gone through this experience love it and what to do it again. And the more they go through the entire process of Readers' Theater with the added metacognitive strategies, the more they enjoy it and the better readers, writers, and thinkers they become. In the students own words: Readers' Theater is "a fun way to learn."
       Most adults would be a bit nervous at the videotaping aspect of the process, but most students love this part. They enjoy seeing themselves, which has a powerful effect on their learning and on their behavior in class and during Readers' Theater.
       In addition, students who never excelled in the language arts often become the very students who are most expressive in the performance, These students experience their strengths and talents. Reading begins to have real meaning for them. They see that reading is dynamic, enjoyable, creative, and fun.
       There are many other ways to develop metacognition in the students during every phase of Readers' Theater and teachers should take advantage of each opportunity they see. The ones mentioned here are the most obvious and, therefore, the easiest opportunities for cultivating metacognition as they naturally fall into place in the actual teaching and performing of Readers' Theater. And this brings me back to my main point, Readers' Theater lends itself to the development of metacognition very naturally and simply.
       Added material
       Maureen E. Kelleher, Ed.D.

REFERENCES
       Baker, L., & Brown, A.L. (1984). Metacognitive skills and reading. In P.D. Pearson (Ed.), Handbook on reading research. (pp. 353-394). New York; Longman.
       Barchers, S. (1994). Scary readers theatre. Englewood CO: Teacher Ideas Press.
       Barchers, S. (1993). Readers theatre for beginning readers. Englewood CO: Teacher Ideas Press.
       Bauer, C.F. (1987). Presenting Reader's Theater: Plays and Poems to Read Aloud. The H.W. Wilson Company.
       Brown, A.L., Bransford, J.D., Ferrara, R.A., & Campione, J.C. (1983). Learning, remembering, and understanding. In J.H. Flavell & E.M Markman (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3, Cognitive development (pp 77-166). New York: Wiley.
       Busching, B.A. (1981). Readers Theatre: An Education for Language and Life. In Language Arts, 58, 330-337.
       Chapman, G. (1991). Teaching Young Playwrights. L.A. Barnett, Ed. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books.
       Coger, L.I. & White, M.R. (1973). Readers Theater handbook. Scott, Foresman & Co.
       Cook, L.K. & Mayer, R.E. (1983). Reading strategy training for meaningfUl learning from prose. In M. Pressley & J.R. Levin (Eds.), Cognitive strategy research: Educational applications (pp. 87- 126). New York: Springer-Verlag.
       Derry, S.J. & Murphy, D.A. (1986). Designing systems that train learning ability: From theory to practice. Review of Educational Research, 56(1), 1-39.
       Flavell, J.H. (1978). Metacognitive development. In J.M. Scandura & C.J. Brainerd (Eds.), Structural process theories of complex human behavior (pp. 213-245). Ayphen & Rijn, The Netherlands: Sijtoff & Noordhoff.
       Fulwiler, T. (Ed). (1987). The Journal Book. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers.
       Gere, A.R. (Ed.). (1985). Roots in the sawdust: Writing to learn across the disciplines. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
       Hoffman, M., Kelleher, M., Harriman, J. & Goekler, J. (1994). Reader's Theater and Metacognition. Presented at the 39th Annual Convention of the International Reading Association, Toronto, Canada.
       Jacobs, J. & Paris, S. (1987). Children's metacognition abut reading: issues in definition, measurement, and instruction. Educational Psychologist, 22, 255-278.
       Kline, S. (1992). The herbie jones reader's theater. New York: Putnam.
       Latrobe, K. (1993). Readers Theatre as a way of learning. The ALAN Review. Winter, 46-50.
       Latrobe, K. H. and Laughlin, M.K. (1989). Readers theatre for young adults: Scripts and script development. Libraries Unlimited.
       Laughlin, M. (1990). Readers theatre for children: Scripts and script development. Englewood, CO: Teacher Ideas Press.
       Levin, J.R. (1986). Four cognitive principles of learning strategy instruction. Educational Psychologist, 21(1 & 2), 3-17.
       Mastropieri, M.A. & Bakl, J.P. (1990). Applications of metacognition in special education. Remedial and Special Education, 16(6), 32-35.
       Mayo, K.E. (1992). Learning strategy instruction: Exploring the potential of metacognition. Educational Psychologist, 92, 130-134.
       McCaslin, N. (1990). Creative drama in the classroom. New York: Longman.
       Palincsar, A.S., David, Y.M., Winn, J.A. & Steven, D.S. (1991). Examining the contexts of strategy instruction. Remedial and Special Education, 12(3), 43-53.
       Paris, S.G. & Winograd, P. (1990). Promoting metacognition and motivation of exceptional children. Remedial and Special Education. 11(6), 7-15.
       Pressley, M., & Goodchild, F., Fleet, J., Zajchowski, R. & Evans, E.D. (1989). The challenges of classroom strategy instruction. Elementary School Journal, 89, 301-342.
       Pressley, M. & Harris, K.R. (1990). What we really know about strategy instruction. Educational Leadership, 48(1), 31-34.
       Readers' Theater scripts in SCOPE Magazine. (1990-1997). Scholastic, Inc., Jefferson City, MO.
       Scruggs, T.E. & Brigham, F.J. (1990). The challenges of metacognitive instruction. Remedial and Special Education, 11(6), 16-18.
       Shanklin, N.L. & Rhodes, L.K. (1989). Comprehension instruction as sharing and extending. The Reading Teacher, March, 496-500.
       Sloyer, S. (1982). Readers Theatre: Story Dramatization in the Classroom. National Council of Teachers of English.
       Tompkins, G.E. & Hoskisson, K. (1991). Language arts: Content and teaching strategies (2nd ed.). NY: Macmillan Publishing Co.
       Wolf, S.A. (1993). What's in a name? Labels and literacy in Readers Theatre. The Reading Teacher. 46(7), 540-545.
       Maureen E. Kelleher is Townwide Curriculum Specialist in Secondary Reading in the West hartford, CT Public Schools.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION FOR READERS THEATER

GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR CREATING A READERS' THEATER SCRIPT
       1. Select a scene that has captivating characters.
       2. The selected scene should have a clear beginning, middle, and end.
       3. Dialogue, not description, should dominate the scene.
       4. Narration is used to summarize and fill in details about plot, setting, and character.
       5. Keep the narration to a minimum: Less is More.
       6. When writing narration, identify the descriptive sections, then either (1) summarize those scenes for the narrator to read, or (2) convert them to dialogue.
       7. When scripting chapters, begin the reading with an introduction of the literary work and characters in the scene. Conclude the scene with narration that links the scene to the entire literary work.
       Adapted from "Readers" Theater as a way of learning." by K. Latrobe.

GUIDELINES FOR CREATING A READERS' THEATER SCRIPT
       1. Read the text and think about the plot, setting, characters and theme. In your groups, complete a story outline using the form.
       2. Choose the character that each group member will assume. (include the narrator)
       3. Highlight the dialogue with markers. Use different colors for each character.
       4. Write each character's initials next to the lines she/he speaks. Complete a character web for the role you will assume.
       5. Underline the sections that will be used for narration. Use a ruler. Individuals not completing character webs can do this.
       6. Put an "x" next to sections of the text where you might add stage directions. Clues can be found in the dialogue (how the character says his/her lines ...e.g., she exclaimed, he sighed, she screamed.) In the narration, look for the action words, e.g., he ran, she raced up the stairs, she flung open the door.
       7. In the left-hand margin, write the "clue" word for you stage directions in paren theses. For example: (shouted), (ran up the stairs) (slipped and fell)
       8. Cut the tags. Cutting the tags means to cut out the line that repeats who said it. Cut lines that can be mimed on the stage. Cut lines that are redundant.... "without smiling even a little bit" Cut lines that are almost impossible to give imagery or are not necessary to the plot. Cut lines about characters that they can express for themselves through facial expressions, gestures, or gimmicks. Change a line when necessary to assign to a character as a spoken line.
       9. Write a script from the text. Add narrator's lines to connect scenes, to establish scenes, and/or to summarize action and events. The cast of characters may consist of as few as two or as many as eight. Cast should include a narrator(s) whose role it is to focus the play by providing the necessary background for character and plot development. The remainder of the cast would consist of the major story characters.
       10. Scripts are adapted from an original piece of literature so keep in mind the author's integrity for character and plot development. The original language should also be maintained though feel free to add interpolations. Interpolation refers to what is going on that's not being said. An example would be adding action through mime of a sunrise or the passing of time. If it's meant to be in the story, it can be added.
       Adapted from L. Hoffman, 1993.

TIPS FOR WRITING A READERS' THEATER SCRIPT
       1. When writing the script, divide the script into half. In partnership, two students should sit together and write the first half and the other partners should sit together to write the second half of the script.
       2. Write the script using the following format:
       a. Write each character's name in uppercase letters with a colon following it. e.g. HUCK:
       b. The characters' lines follow the colon or the stage directions. Do not use quotation marks. For example. HUCK: No'm, I ain't hungry.
       c. Use stage directions. In Readers' Theater, unlike in a play, action is minimal and usually is limited to gestures, (Huck waves), facial expressions (Ben smiled), and oral expression (angrily). The stage directions are written inside the parentheses.
       d. Skip a line whenever another character speaks.
       3. After a rough draft is written, the whole group should sit together and read through the script to smooth out transitions between the two parts. At this time, rough edit the script for content and flow of action.
       4. In pairs, go back through the script that you wrote, proofreading for punctuation, spelling, grammar, etc. On the word processor, type up a clean copy, incorporating all corrections into your final copy. Make four copies of the final copy as this will serve as your script for the performance

GUIDELINES FOR REHEARSING READERS' THEATER SCRIPTS
       1. Assign a reader for each part.
       2. As a group, read through the play once or twice.
       3. Discuss the story. Make corrections or additions in the script with regard to editing and with regard to content (Are all the points accurate with regard to theme, plot, setting, characters, dialogue, etc.?)
       4. Begin to think about how you will interpret your character. Think about how you will use your voice, facial expressions, and some gestures to interpret your character. Refer to the character web.
       5. Read the script one or two more times, striving for accurate pronunciation, voice projection, and appropriate inflections. Does the story flow, with each reader coming in at the appropriate time. Timing is critical to a good performance.
       6. If the characters will be acting with the reading, practice moving into the correct positions and know the space that each character will occupy so that characters aren't too close or too far away from each other during the reading.

GUIDELINES FOR PERFORMING READERS' THEATER SCRIPTS
       1. Perform the play in the classroom or on stage.
       2. Perform the play either standing or sitting in a row, or if action is used, know exactly the moves you will make and the space you will be moving in.
       3. Know who speaks before your lines and what they say so that your timing is smooth and transitions are natural.
       4. Emphasis is on voice quality and oral expression. Imagine the audience can only hear your voice. Now become your character.
       Adapted from L. Hoffman, 1993.

WBN: 9700201503001